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Dio Cassius (AD 155 — 325) describes another plague in volume 73 of his work (LXXIII.xiii.3 — 4) that took place in AD 191, and killed two thousand Romans a day at its height.

I think, but it has been many years, that it was also Caracalla that abolished the ability for equites to buy a Senatorial rank. The emperors (until Constantin) understood this danger very well, and did their very best to undermine this new movement, but in vain… at last.

When the talented orator we met in the previous chapter, Aelius Aristides, delivered his “Roman Oration” before the emperor Antoninus Pius in AD 144, he was not in the finest fettle. Christianity made inroads by making slave and master equal. They’ve already supplied the circuses, they just want someone else to supply the bread. Disease made inroads by killing off productive societal units. He split the administration between four emperors; two senior and two junior. His translations and summaries are not incorrect, but some passages seem to have been rendered tendentiously into English in support of the preferred narrative. The graphs and visual aids throughout this book are sometimes patently misleading. The last Roman Emperor to rule the entire empire was Theodosius I, who reigned from May 15th, AD 392 to January 17th, AD 395.

Climate conditions helped Rome to prosper. on JSTOR. The Senatorial ranks were exempted, but were expected to provide spectacles and other social goods to their clients out of their own purse. He has written two other award-winning books: Slavery in the Late Roman World, AD 275-425, and From Shame to Sin: The Christian Transformation of Sexual Morality. In Greer’s formulation, we can at least decide to use less resources; in Tainter’s explanation, we inevitably develop excessive complexity in systems, and any attempts to reduce it are basically doomed. Saint Cyprian’s career is exceptionally well-documented: He served as bishop of Carthage for less than a decade before he was martyred in AD 258. According to this view, plagues helped fatally weaken, not just imperial institutions, but Roman society itself.

Manichees and Christians were seen as a serious threat to order because they did not obey the same gods as everybody else. This becomes convoluted and evolves throughout the empire’s history, but as I recall it was either Elagabulus or Caracalla that extended the Roman franchise to all Italians. He writes old-fashioned narrative history well; but his analysis is often surprisingly crude, and some reviewers have accused him of “environmental determinism.” This, alas, seems fair.

The city of Rome likely had a population of over a million by the time the Emperor Augustus died (August 19th, AD 14). The imperial administration became chronically unable to meet its obligations.

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